Balance Sheet and Public Sector Reform Essay

Financial control 1.1 Assess the relationship(s) between a financial system or function and other systems or functions in an organisation Answer: Information and records are of critical importance to the functioning and controlling of systems in general, including organisational systems. Given the central importance of information and records to systems operation, including public sector organisations and the societies they exist to govern, we should not be surprised to learn that public sector reform efforts that overlook the information component often fail to meet their immediate objectives and the longer-term goal of establishing a framework for good governance. Efforts to improve the management of public sector records in many countries have been hampered by a gap between the National Archives and the government’s record-creating departments. The result has been that most of the records in the custody of the Archives are over forty years old, while the records in government departments remain unmanaged. Some National Archives have inspecting powers, but there are few professionals trained to manage current records. Moreover, there are rarely systems in place to ensure that semi-current and non-current records are transferred to secure accommodation or appropriately destroyed. The introduction of computerized systems, often a key part of public sector reform projects, is compounding existing record-keeping problems. These computerized systems are using information that may be seriously flawed and based on collapsed paper-based systems. It is because effective management of records is so crucial to achieving public sector reform objectives, which lead to good governance, that restructuring must encompass the management of records. Restructuring of records and archives management processes must be seen as an integral part of the restructuring of core government processes to ensure the success of public sector reform efforts. 1.2 Describe the systems of accounts and financial statements used to control a financial system Answer: Financial statements are the primary means of communicating financial information to parties outside the business organization. The four basic financial statements: Balance Sheet Income Statement Statement of Cash Flows Statement of Retained Earnings ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS In small enterprises there can be different kinds of accounting systems such as external, internal and tax accounting. Annex 3 summarises data per Member State concerning accounting system requirements for small enterprises. On the basis of this data, the following descriptions of accounting systems are given: Internal accounting Internal accounting, also called management accounting is based on the enterprise’s internal accounting procedures and recorded accounting information. Internal accounting is intended for managers within organizations, to provide them with the economic basis to make informed business decisions that would allow them to be better equipped in their management and control functions. For example, managers may want to be able to assess the contribution or the profitability of different products or services that they supply by comparing the revenues and costs that they generate. Unlike external accounting information, internal accounting is usually confidential and it is accessible only to the management. In most cases, small enterprises do not use internal accounting at all due to their size. Internal accounting is normally not governed by national legislation. However, in some Member States internal accounting is compulsory even for small enterprises. External accounting External accounting, also called financial accounting is concerned with the preparation of financial statements for decision makers, such as the owners, suppliers, banks, governments and its agencies, customers and other stakeholders outside the enterprise. External accounting makes use of the accounting information from the internal accounting system. In the preparation of the external accounting, the small enterprise may be governed by local 1.3 Analyse financial information contained in a set of accounts or financial statements Answer: The two main sources of data for financial analysis are a company’s balance sheet and income statement. The balance sheet outlines the financial and physical resources that a company has available for business activities in the future. It is important to note, however, that the balance sheet only lists these resources, and makes no judgment about how well they will be used by management. For this reason, the balance sheet is more useful in analysing a company’s current financial position than its expected performance. The main elements of the balance sheet are assets and liabilities. Assets generally include both current assets (cash or equivalents that will be converted to cash within one year, such as accounts receivable, inventory, and prepaid expenses) and noncurrent assets (assets that are held for more than one year and are used in running the business, including fixed assets like property, plant, and equipment; long-term investments; and intangible assets like patents, copyrights, and goodwill). Both the total amount of assets and the makeup of asset accounts are of interest to financial analysts. The balance sheet also includes two categories of liabilities, current liabilities (debts that will come due within one year, such as accounts payable, short-term loans, and taxes) and long-term debts (debts that are due more than one year from the date of the statement).Liabilities are important to financial analysts because businesses have same obligation to pay their bills regularly as individuals, while business income tends to be less certain. Long-term liabilities are less important to analysts, since they lack the urgency of short-term debts, though their presence does indicate that a company is strong enough to be allowed to borrow money. The balance sheet also commonly includes stock-holders’ equity accounts, which detail the permanent capital of the business. The total equity usually consists of two parts: the money that has been invested by shareholders, and the money that has been retained from profits and reinvested in the business. In general the more equity that is held by a business, the better the ability of the business to borrow additional funds. In contrast to the balance sheet, the income statement provides information about a company’s performance over a certain period of time. Although it does not reveal much about the company’s current financial condition, it does provide indications of its future viability. The main elements of the income statement are revenues earned; expenses incurred, and net profit or loss. Revenues consist mainly of sales, though financial analysts may also note the inclusion of royalties, interest, and extraordinary items. Likewise, operating expenses usually consist primarily of the cost of goods sold, but can also include some unusual items. Net income is the â€Å"bottom line† of the income statement. This figure is the main indicator of a company’s accomplishments over the statement period. Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/financial-analysis#ixzz1uKymsDuW 2.1 As a manager you need to fully understand your role in the budgetary process. It is the most basic financial planning and control tool. Every manager needs to know what costs are associated with their department, and how in relation are they doing to that budget. You might achieve your departmental goals, but if you go over budget in order to achieve those goals, you create financial problems for the company and jeopardize your own job performance review. In most cases, part of your performance appraisal will be based on whether or not you were within budget for the year. Budgets need to be realistic. You can’t just say at a whim you need 20 new people, just as upper management can’t say you have only $10 for a years’ worth of training classes. Budgets are used to investigate variances, whether you went over or under budget, and address the reasons for the variances. You need to always look at ways to control those variances by controlling costs. By being on top of your budget, you might be able to make changes before it’s too late and you end up having to reduce staff or eliminate a branch of your department. There are basically two types of budgets, a capital expenditure budget and operating budget: 1. Capital expenditure (also known as â€Å"Capex†) relates to costs associated with plant and equipment. This is equipment that generally lasts for more than a year such as a copy machine. 2. Operating budget, which is related to the normal day-to-day operations and expenditures such as payroll, supplies, and miscellaneous. There are two types of budgets within an operating budget, sales budgets and expense budgets:  · Sales budget is associated with comparison and variance of the actual revenue brought with the projected revenue.  · Expense budget applies to all areas incurring operating expenses, including the sales department. This is the budget we will focus on. CASH BUDGET FOR 90 DAYS Beginning cash balance $ 320,000 Add: Estimated collections on accounts receivable750,000 Estimated cash sales 250,000 $1,320,000 Deduct: Estimated payments on accounts payable $ 800,000 Estimated cash expenses 150,000 Contractual payments on long-term debt 150,000 Quarterly dividend 50,000 $1,150,000 Estimated ending cash balance $ 170,000 2.2 Budgetary Control is defined as â€Å"the establishment of budgets, relating the responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy, and the continuous comparison of actual with budgeted results either to secure by individual action the objective of that policy or to provide a base for its revision. 2. Salient features: a. Objectives: Determining the objectives to be achieved, over the budget period, and the policy (ies) that might be adopted for the achievement of these ends. b. Activities: Determining the variety of activities that should be undertaken for achievement of the objectives. c. Plans: Drawing up a plan or a scheme of operation in respect of each class of activity, in physical as well as monetary terms for the full budget period and its parts. d. Performance Evaluation: Laying out a system of comparison of actual performance by each person section or department with the relevant budget and determination of causes for the discrepancies, if any. e. Control Action: Ensuring that when the plans are not achieved, corrective actions are taken; And when corrective actions are not possible, ensuring that the plans are revised and objective achieved. Budgetary Control is an integral part of management. It consists in comparisons between the results of actual performance and budgeted performance. Central to this kind of comparison is Standard Costing and Variance Analysis. The purpose of this article is to clarify simply to the leaner, reader, and others peoples who related with accounts, budgets, costing department. 01. Variance Analysis: In a well-run organization the comparison between actual and budget is used as the basis for deciding the appropriate action. This document sets out how the analysis is used to highest effect. The procedure is actually part of the normal control process. Any variation from expected performance, in terms of budgets, where income or expenditure did not occur as expected. Variance analysis is the act of determining the drivers for those variations. Variances are noted and accounted for. A decision can be made to reduce expenses or reallocate resources. This technique greatly reduces the need for comprehensive review cycles. 2.3 Budget and Budgetary control, both at management and operational level looks at the future and lays down what has to be achieved. Control verifies whether or not the plans are understood, and puts into effect corrective measures where deviation or underperformance is occurring. This article â€Å"Techniques of Budgetary Control† examines how budget and budgetary control can impact on the performance of the organizations Techniques: Budgetary Control is an integral part of management. It consists in comparisons between the results of actual performance and budgeted performance. Central to this kind of comparison is Standard Costing and Variance Analysis. The purpose of this article is to clarify simply to the leaner, reader, and others peoples who related with accounts, budgets, costing department. What variance analysis is all about, avoiding pure technicalities and the terminology of accountants? Notice is confined to costs and cost variances in this article. A similar dealing of revenue and revenue variances would also be compulsory to acquire a proper perspective. Following explained The Budgetary Control Techniques 01. Variance Analysis: In a well-run organization the comparison between actual and budget is used as the basis for deciding the appropriate action. This document sets out how the analysis is used to highest effect. The procedure is actually part of the normal control process. Any variation from expected performance, in terms of budgets, where income or expenditure did not occur as expected. Variance analysis is the act of determining the drivers for those variations. Variances are noted and accounted for. A decision can be made to reduce expenses or reallocate resources. This technique greatly reduces the need for comprehensive review cycles.

Online Learning V.S Traditional Classroom Learning

I think whether it is online learning or traditional class learning both should be taken into consideration when planning to further education. I personally did not consider the facts when I decided to further my education. I had started out in a traditional classroom but soon after realized it was not the right choice. It was hard to fully apply myself when I was attending a traditional classroom because I was a working wife and mother. Online learning and traditional learning will show that both of these are great options depending on who the student may be and which educational program the student has chosen. Online learning and traditional learning each have their merits and faults. Online degrees have become a perfect option for individuals who may not be able to enroll in a traditional classroom. When you compare the two learning classes, the biggest difference is that students studying online have the flexibility to attend classes at their own pace and time. In a campus-based classroom they require that students attend class a certain number of times every week, at specific times. Traditional class learning may not be the option for people who have children or work long hours. Learning online would be a better option for these people because they can make their own schedule for when they will attend class. Both online and traditional classes give students the opportunity to interact with other students and their professors. With a traditional classroom you can interact with students and professors face -to -face. In online learning there is no face- to -face interaction with classmates or instructors. Online learning interaction can consist of chat rooms, e-mail, main forums, and over the telephone. Traditional class students have a better advantage of understanding the materials because they can have that one –on- one time with the instructor face- to -face. It may be a little harder for online students to grasp the materials because they do not have that face- to -face interaction. Online learning and traditional class learning work assignments are similar and different in their own ways. In both online and traditional learning classes you still have assignments that have to be completed by a certain time. In the traditional class your assignments are done on paper and with online learning you have to submit your assignments on the computer. Also with traditional class learning one has the opportunity to present in front of their classmates, while online students do not have that option. They are only able to present their presentations to the instructors. In both classes you still have homework and you have to participate in class. Online learning requires you to participate and attend class a certain number of times but there is no specific times or days. They have the option to decide when that will be but with traditional class you have to attend class every day you are scheduled and participate every day. Earning a degree at a traditional college can be very expensive but obtaining a online degree can be a lot less expensive for students. Exceptionally less, but they offer students the same loan and grant benefits offered at a traditional college. Online schools and traditional schools offer the same financial aid packages. Students who attend a traditional class usually have to pay traveling cost and living cost. Online learning students do not have to pay these extra costs because they are learning from home and that requires no traveling. Also with online schools you do not have to pay for facilities like residence halls, dining halls, gyms and libraries. Most provide access to virtual libraries and some even have partnerships with local facilities. There are many similarities and differences between online learning and traditional class learning. The facts show that both are great options to consider, depending upon the person and his or her day- to- day schedule. One method to determine how well online learning and traditional class learning might work for you is to consider the benefits and disadvantages of both. Researching and planning ahead can help a person in deciding which would better fit his or her needs. I have found online learning to better fit my needs because I can make my own schedule concerning attending class. I am a mother and wife so I have many responsibilities and this option gives me time to take care of my household while still being able to obtain a degree at my own pace. Do the research to see which one is the right option for you at this time in your life. Most people think that their decision to go to college only affects them but it affects your family also. You have to still be able to do for your family and handle your business at home. I also suggest if you are attending a traditional college and it seems to be too overwhelming for you at times you should really consider trying the online learning. Becoming successful in life depends on the choices you make throughout life, whether they be good or bad choices. So choose wisely which learning class be it online learning or traditional learning is right for you and your family.

Black & Decker (SWOT analysis) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Black & Decker (SWOT analysis) - Research Paper Example The industrial segment is sub divided into tradesmen and industry level. The domestic consumers are a big fan of Black & Decker products and the company enjoys fifty percent market share from this segment. However, the share at industrial level is twenty percent and tradesmen account for nine percent only. Tradesmen are not quite satisfied with the Black & Decker products as they consider the tools less professional and less reliable. Although research and development is an ongoing process at Black & Decker and due to the company’s efforts, hundreds and thousands of products have become a part of the brand. Sub brands of Black & Decker are also popular at global level. Thus, the brand portfolio of Black & Decker is quite satisfactory and appeals the customers. ... other idea could be to remove the Black & Decker label from all products in the mentioned category and market the products under the name of other Black & Decker brands which are absolutely free of any negative associations. Threats Competitors such as Makita and Milwaukee are a major threat for Black & Decker. They have a market share of more than fifty percent and have better brand awareness and reputation in the power tools market. The negative image of Black & Decker can also have negative impact on the consumer segment. If strategies aimed at the growth in the tradesmen segment fail, the company might face decline in revenues and reputation. 4 P’s Analysis Product Black & Decker is one of the world’s biggest manufacturers of power tools and accessories. The products range from the smallest of screwdrivers which are used rarely by domestic consumers to heaviest parts of machinery used at the industrial scale. The products are classified into two categories: home use and industrial use. The industrial segment is sub divided into tradesmen and industry level. The domestic consumers are a big fan of Black & Decker products and the company enjoys fifty percent market share from this segment. However, the share at industrial level is twenty percent and tradesmen account for nine percent only. Tradesmen are not quite satisfied with the Black & Decker products as they consider the tools less professional and less reliable. Although research and development is an ongoing process at Black & Decker and due to the company’s efforts, hundreds and thousands of products have become a part of the brand. Sub brands of Black & Decker are also popular at global level. Thus, the brand portfolio of Black & Decker is quite satisfactory and appeals the customers. Price A deep

The Maltese Youth Policy 2004 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Maltese Youth Policy 2004 - Essay Example The policy covers the psychological, mental and physical realms of young people's health. Since the policy focuses on prevention rather than treatment, this is a wise approach by the Maltese government because it implies that they have realised that good health starts at an early age. This objective is to be implemented through establishment of health education. (Youth Forum, 2006a) The Maltese Youth Policy is also quite unswerving in its approach because it focuses on some of the dangerous activities that youth engage in and those that can be detrimental to their health. This has been achieved through placement of professionals to deal with those dangerous issues e.g. unprotected sex, addiction, promiscuity, careless driving, malnutrition and dangerous leisure activities. The Policy also considers the fact that youth need to be protected in their work places and therefore introduces the issue of promotion of safety standards within workplaces. There are some weaknesses in the policy too. The first is the fact that very little has been done to address the issue of diversity within the nation yet there are a number of foreign youth in the country. Additionally, the policy has described all the issues that need to be addressed but it has not implemented some of these issues. Part of the reason why implementation has been slow was because some of the terms in the policy are ambiguous. For example, the policy claims that it will 'promote' health as part of the holistic approach to health. However, details on how this can be achieved have not been clearly laid out. Additionally, the policy has not specified which age groups or classes will need health education. The policy has made a sweeping statement about the importance of early education as a base for healthy living yet there are various interpretations to the term 'early'. (Eurodesk, 2004) A Critique of the Youth Health policy in Slovakia, Britain and Finland The Youth Policy in Britain focuses on a number of issues facing young members of society. Some of them include; embracing diversity within the nations' youth agenda, promoting participation of the youth in activities that affect their country including sports and many others. However, there is very little focus on health. Despite giving numerous suggestions on how the overall well being of the youth can be improved, there is still little effort to link those suggestions to health. (ESPNsoccernet, 2008) However, there are some positive aspects about the policy too. The policy initiated a campaign against unhealthy eating habits and childhood obesity. It also created a personal health initiative where there would be focus on the young people between the ages of twelve and thirteen. This was introduced in order to assist young people in the process of making a transition from their teenage years into later stages of life. However, even this initiative is not all encompassing as it has not looked at emotional and mental aspects of health. All in all, one can conclude that the Youth Policy in Britain is quite elaborate but lacks precision under the health agenda. The Youth Policy in Finland is examined after every ten years through the Youth Act. The last change was

Advertisement Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Advertisement Analysis - Assignment Example In this advert, all the car’s occupants comprise youths who have had an accident though the two teens occupying passenger seats seem to have already died. There is a phone showing incomplete statement, â€Å"We’re already ther†¦.† which afterwards rings; probably their friends are inquiring victims where they have reached once they fail to receive a reply text within the anticipated period (â€Å"Eberhard Productions†). In order to make this advert work effectively, producer chooses to use an extremely catching tune while showing the accident’s severity. Hence, bringing a feeling which normally follows tension sound tracks mostly used in movies to evaluate or show consequences of a calamity especially when victims are trying to come into terms with the reality (â€Å"Eberhard Productions†). The advert also utilizes both continuous and immobile animations features like dented vehicle, tree, passing car as well unconscious children who are lethally injured. Other animations include ringing phone, which has prompted the young woman to cause an accident with an incomplete message though the person they were rushing to meet is calling. It is intriguing how the producer integrates actions in the film to relay his or her message. Instead of the warning statement of texting while driving being at the start of the film, he or she chooses to have it towards the end. These encompass unconscious injured victims, dented car, ringing phone and screaming young woman due to shock of what has befallen them though her shout is not audible in the movie (â€Å"Eberhard

Occupy Wall Street Movement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Occupy Wall Street Movement - Essay Example The moral and economic implications of Occupy Wall Street movement are quite diverse in nature. The major facets of the movement are social and economic disparity, greediness, corruption and unwarranted power of business organizations on government. The moral issues of Occupy Wall Street movement comprise equality, care and freedom (Kaneck, 2012). The common concern recognized in the movement is the wealth gap between 1% (who are categorized as wealthy businessmen and bankers) and the 99% (who are the other citizens including the protestors). According to the protestors, the 1% has excessive wealth and authority and also has power over economic well-being of the nation. The protestors of Occupy Wall Street movement view the rich as frauds who misuse the economic systems and policies (Jickling & Hoskins, 2011). Thoroughly Analyze Each of the Implications Identified Above Against the Utilitarian, Kantian, and Virtue Ethics to Determine Which Theory Best Applies To the Movement; Thoroug hly Supported Your Position with Examples and Evidence Ethical theories have been considered for analyzing the protest movement. The above implications of Occupy Wall Street movement can be analyzed by using three major ethical theories which are Utilitarian, Kantian and Virtue Ethics. Utilitarian approach generally depends on the view that ethical activities can generate most of the good outcomes for society and economy. It is a general belief that society is the net outcome of individual choices for conducting certain activities. Utilitarian ethics possess the view that appropriate course of activities can enhance the value of individuals, increase the happiness and minimize the sufferings of people in a society. Kantian ethics is based on the thought of ethical responsibility. It proclaims that an activity can only be considered as ethical if it is conducted on the basis of duty, rather than on the basis consequences of such actions. The outcome of Kantian ethics is subject to th e statement that there is no inherent connection between happiness and virtue. It highlights the right activity over the good activity. On the other hand, virtue ethics concentrates on the role of an individual for defining or assessing ethical behaviors and activities. The differences between these three ethics depend on the way ethical problems are approached (Cobbett & Germain, 2012). With respect to the Occupy Wall Street movement, unseen events of bailout, movement of money and economic crisis are all agreed upon certain activities of people. Considering the above three ethical theories, utilitarian ethics best match with the implications of Occupy Wall Street movement. It can be observed that the objective of Occupy Wall Street movement is to minimize the corruption and enhance the participation of government in order to support the economic growth and to ensure equality of wealth and income. Furthermore, the moral and economic implications with respect to the minimization of unemployment, income inequality and equal wealth distribution can only be possible if utilitarian ethics is followed (Asanuma, 2011). Thoroughly Determine Who Is Responsible For Income Inequality And Wealth Distribution In The U.S. In Your Analysis, Make Sure To Include If This Is Something That Happened Suddenly or If It Built Up

CJ403 Final Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

CJ403 Final - Research Paper Example In this paper, the author examines the Enron Corporation scandal by looking at some ethical principles and theories. By using such frameworks, it is hoped that a deeper analysis of business practices can be arrived at, one that clearly outlines the need for asking pertinent questions about moral conduct in a sector of society that is undeniably susceptible to unethical behavior. The Enron Corporation initiated various corporate means that, at the time, were seen as bold and perhaps even revolutionary. This was especially true when Jeffrey Skilling, former Enron CEO, came on board upon impressing founder and deregulation advocate, Kenneth Lay, with his consultancy capabilities. Prior to the Skilling phase of the company, Enron’s traders had been gambling without restraint using company funds, but with the knowledge of Kenneth Lay. Even with investigations and reports of misappropriation of funds, Lay intimated to traders to further continue generating money for the company. However, as is the nature of â€Å"gambling†, luck is bound to change. Enron’s traders soon gambled all of the company’s reserves. Nevertheless, the company survived and went on to employ Skilling. It was Skilling’s idea to utilize mark to market accounting, that is, the use of future projections to book earnings on deals that actually never made anythin g. This idea essentially opened up the company to unscrupulous practices, paving the way for fraudulent profit reports. Enron was also one of the first companies to form what they called, a Performance Review Committee, whose job it was to ensure that all employees were delivering the results that the company expected from them. This had the effect of pressuring employees to perform well, but had the unsavory consequence of pushing employees to adopt and utilize â€Å"less than ethical† conduct. By positioning itself as a kind of energy broker, Enron put up a number of businesses that, in reality,

Global Automobile Indusry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Global Automobile Indusry - Essay Example There are several automobile companies spread all over the world, in different continents and in distinct countries. Some of them are; Japan, Germany, Italy, France and the United States. These are the heavyweights who work in conjunction with other firms and certified dealers in the developed and still developing countries. Their job hence entails the assembling of parts to come up with a finished product. Some known names include, Toyota, Isuzu, Mercedes, Chevrolet, Citroen, Chrysler, Hummer and many more. The firms involved have put extremely large amounts of capital into the business. This is because, it takes serious investment and taking risks in order to realize good and stable profit margins. Too much work is done to maintain brilliance in this very competitive industry. Good arguments have been tabulated concerning the industrial and market aspects of globalization. Any given manufacturer tries to triumph his competitor using any means possible. Tactics which are applied tend to directly be against the opponent. (Lynch, 2008). The policies formulated have the primary aim of attracting customers, depending on demand, taste, economical growth and preferences. Taking the likelihood of activist groups taking to the streets, it then becomes important for the personnel involved to take into account environmental changes that are might take shape following introduction of their vehicles. In this case analysis, I find it rather important to at look Toyota Company Limited and Volkswagen. Toyota is fast growing and spreading, in fact it's to find their car models in almost the whole world and Volkswagen for being an ancient company that is still taking new shapes in relation to current and latest automobile model. Toyota is always trying to cater for those requirements that suit people of all walks of life. Citing example on the ever unstable crude oil and the resultant product's prices, they create less fuel consuming engines to cater for that economical allowance. Another more evident strategy used to fit in to the system is the variety in strength and capacity that their model can comfortably cope and manage in due time or over range of a given period. Networking with other industries is also an important aspect in order to win that continuity and confidence in customers and clients. It is then definitely a task earn to publicity and goodwill depending on the prevailing market-competitor state. Certain factors have to be considered in order to realize the goals the automakers have in relation to the industry, not forgetting competitors are many. They involve advertisement, marketing, research, public relations, community relations, employee relations, budgeting, evaluations and monitoring of their projects (Corcoran, 2008). It goes to further digging to know who amongst their competitors has connections in the agencies or Companies and their interests. This multinational vehicle company has all this data at its fingertips just incase they need to shift gears which will facilitate their smartness.

Financial Ratio for Krispy Kreme and BCG Matrix for McDonald's Assignment

Financial Ratio for Krispy Kreme and BCG Matrix for McDonald's - Assignment Example The measurement considers all assets including inventory, accounts receivable, and fixed assets. The lower the ratio, the more slowly the firm’s sales are. Comparing the number to past years company data is important in order to see trends that have developed. In addition, comparing it to the industry standard is useful in order to see how the company compares to its prime competitors. If a problem exists with a low ratio, it could be possible that one or more of the firm’s asset categories have problems that need addressing. (Peavler, pp 1-2). Krispy Kreme’s total assets turnover ratio of 1.9 times is better than its prime competitors of McDonalds and Starbucks. McDonald's has a current total assets turnover of .80 times, while Starbucks Corporation has a current total assets turnover of 1.7 times. (ADVFN, PLC) Hence, this is listed as an overall strength or competitive advantage for Krispy Kreme. The second ratio examined is Krispy Kreme’s debt to equity ratio. The ratio is calculated as Total liabilities / Stockholder’s Equity. A high debt to equity ratio would indicate that the company has financed its growth through debt. The main issues would be if the company overextended itself and took on too much debt, or if it has to shoulder a large amount of interest due to the existing debt. High or increasing debt ratios in relation to equity can be dangerous since it would indicate that the company is being financed by creditors instead of internal cash flows. (www.enterpernuer.com website). Krispy Kreme’s debt to equity ratio of 1.05 is higher than its prime competitors. McDonalds Corporation has a .81 ratio, while Starbucks has a low .18 ratio. (ADVFN, PLC). Overall, 1.05 of Krispy Kreme is not an evident weakness, since using some leverage is not considered a clear weakness. The third ratio examined is the return on equity ratio. It is calculated as follows: Net income / Common Equity. This ratio is especially useful for shareholders who are interested in knowing what profits earned by the company can be made available to pay dividends.     

Research in psychology-week3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Research in psychology-week3 - Essay Example Furthermore it uses meta- analysis to compare this rate of relapse of offences in juveniles to those of adults and the findings indicate that it was relatively lower but not significantly different. This quantitative research analyses the issue at hand using an appropriate research framework because the situation requires the division of clearly defined variables. The undertaking is most appropriate as it is conducted by the use of meta-analysis. Using this approach the researchers gets the opportunity to critically evaluate and statistically combine results of comparable studies to the one he is currently conducting hence acquiring a comprehensive findings. This in regard to the current study would be to analyze the characteristics of the juvenile justice and compare the probability of repeat offences with that of the instruments of adult risk assessment. The findings indicate the presence of strong similarities between the two. Susan J. Smiths ‘Crime and the structure of soci al relations’ analyses the geography of crime. Looking at the element of victimization in an ethically mixed inner city the findings of the study suggest that the distribution of crime reflects the lifestyle and the activity patterns of a community. Using aspects of an exploratory research and observation the researcher addresses abstract concerns about the problems of law and order by highlighting certain characteristics of a specific residential environment and the effect of crime in terms of social anxieties it faces. The approach taken by the research is deemed most appropriate considering the achieving of an understanding of a complex phenomenon. Furthermore it investigates the relationships and patterns in the context in which the activity happens. This can be seen in the way the findings indicate that the more an environment is prone to violence in terms of trends of lifestyle the more the crime feeds into the structure of a society and social relations. References Cra ig S. Schwalbe. Risk Assessment for Juvenile Justice: A Meta-Analysis. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 449 - 464. Susan J. Smith. Crime and the Structure of Social Relations. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 9,

Principles of assessment Essay Example for Free

Principles of assessment Essay 1. 1 Explain the functions of assessment in learning and development What is assessment? This is the term given to the process of checking that learning has occurred and to check if that learning is effective. It is a way to evidence/ prove a learners achievement in the area being assessed. Assessment I is also used to identify learners needs, how best to support such learner while contributing to quality assurance and the development of good practice . There are three main stages of assessment namely; 1. Initial Assessment 2. Formative Assessment And 3. Summative Assessment . 1. 2 Why Assess? If you have just delivered a training session and you don’t assess, how can you be sure that any learning has taken place? Or if you are trying to work out a person’s level of skill in a particular area, how would you know whether their skill level is poor, moderate or exceptional without assessment? There are various reasons to assess such as: †¢Determining level of knowledge understanding †¢Ensuring that learning is taking place †¢Checking progress. Fulfilling part of a certification requirement like Nvq, PTTLS, etc. . Ensuring the learners specific domains has been considered. Hence the need for assessment at various stages of learning. Giving a summary of learning for the person carrying out the assessment means they can be confident that the candidate has the required level of knowledge on a particular topic or competency for a certain task. For the candidate, assessment usually means reassurance of their own level of knowledge / competency and usually a certificate at the end of the day.

Test for Glucose Control Treatment

Test for Glucose Control Treatment Introduction Carbohydrate forms the principle source of energy. Usually polysaccharide (starch and glycogen) which are glucose units joined by a-glucosidic links and disaccharides (sucrose and lactose) the main dietary carbohydrate. Carbohydrate absorption must be presented to the intestinal epithelium in monosaccharide from mainly glucose and therefore digestion must precede absorption. Glucose gained a significant importance because brain cells are very dependent on it as it is sole source of energy supply. Red blood cells also depend on glucose to carry out their functions. Therefore the blood glucose concentration must be maintained within relative narrow range. After a carbohydrate-containing meal, glucose is transported in the portal blood to the liver, which takes up 60% of the glucose load. Consequently, a rise in the blood glucose concentration causes the release of insulin which will increase the entry of excess glucose into the liver where it is stored in form of glycogen. The normal plasma glucose concentration remains between 4.5 and 11 mmol/L, despite the intermittent load entering the body from the gastrointestinal tract. The maintenance of plasma glucose concentration below 11 mmol/L minimizes loss from the body as well as providing the optimal supply to the brain. Mayne, (1994). All the filtered glucose through glomeruli is reabsorbed in the proximal tubules. Therefore no glucose should be detected in urine; significant glycosuria occurs if the plasma glucose concentration exceeds 11 mmol/L. The two most important hormones in glucose homoeostasis are insulin and glucagon. Insulin is a 53 amino acid polypeptide, secreted by the ÃŽ ²-cells in the islet langerhans of the pancreas in response to a rise in the blood glucose concentration. Insulin stimulates glycogen synthesis and inhibits glycogenolysis through interaction with an exquisitely coordinated control mechanism that is central to the regulation of blood glucose concentration. Glucagon is a 29 amino acid polypeptide secreted by the ÃŽ ±-cells of the pancreatic islet. Its secretion is decreased by a rise in the blood glucose concentration. The action of glucagon is opposite those of insulin. It stimulates hepatic glycogenolysis through activation of glycogen phosphorylase, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and ketogenesis. Marshell, (2000). The world health organization (WHO) defined diabetes on the basis of laboratory findings as a fasting venous plasma glucose concentration greater than 7.8 mmol/L and greater than 11.1 mmol/L two hours after the oral ingestion of the equivalent of 75g of glucose even the fasting concentration is normal. Mayne, (1994). Diabetes mellitus classified in two types; insulin dependent diabetes (IDDM type-1) where there is a defective insulin secretion. This condition presents in childhood or early adulthood (less than 20 years). Because of insulin deficiency, hyperglycaemia is very likely to occur. As a result glucose will leak to urine (glycosuria) because the plasma glucose concentration exceeds the renal threshold (10 mmol/l). Other consequences related to this condition are polyuria (frequent urination), glucose lost in urine draw water with it by osmosis producing osmotic diuresis characterized by polyuria. The excess fluid lost from the body leads to dehydration and thirst which is a c ompensatory mechanism to counteract the dehydration. One of severe metabolic complication that may occur in this condition is ketoacidosis; there is increased lipid and protein breakdown, enhanced hepatic gluconeogenesis and impaired glucose into cells. Marshall, (2000). In this condition insulin doses are required for the treatment. The causes of the type I diabetes can be an autoimmune where the islet cell antibodies react specifically with the ÃŽ ²-cells, or viral infection that destroy the ÃŽ ²-cells of pancreatic islet. Individual with certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) types have been shown to carry a particular high risk of developing type I diabetes. In type II diabetes, non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), obesity is the biggest risk factor, 90% of type II diabetes are obese and it is occurs in the late onset. In this condition ÃŽ ²-cells of islet langerhans are normal which means that there will be a normal insulin concentration and sometimes high in the blood. Also the sensitivity of insulins target cells reduced. The cause of reduced remains elusive, recent research suggest that adipose tissue cells secrete a hormone known as resistin, which interfere with insulin action in experimental animal. This could be an important link between obesity and insulin resistance. Resistin is distinct from leptin, the hormone secreted by adipose cells that plays a role in controlling food intake. (Kumar Clark, 2002). Treatment of this condition by dietary control and weight loss, exercise, sometimes oral hypoglycaemic drugs required. Other conditions can lead to Diabetes Mellitus such as absolute insulin deficiency due to a pancreatic disease (chronic pancreatitis, haemochromatosis, cystic fibrosis). Relative insulin deficiency, can cause diabetes mellitus due to excessive growth hormone, glucocorticoid secretion, or increased plasma glucocorticoid concentration due to administration of steroids. Also drugs like thiazide diuretics can cause diabetes mellitus. Mayne, (1994). Materials and method Please refer to medical biochemistry practical book (BMS2). Result: The equation obtained fro the calibration curve used to calculate the concentration of glucose in plasma. Y = 0.018 X Where y = absorbance x = glucose concentration Patient 1: P (fasting) = 0.078 / 0.018 = 4.3 mmol/L P (2hrs) = 0.105 / 0.018 = 5.8 mmol/L Patient 2: P (fasting) = 0.113 / 0.018 = 6.2 mmol/L P (2hrs) = 0.105 / 0.018 = 8.3 mmol/L Patient 3 P (fasting) = 0.148 / 0.018 = 8.2 mmol/L P (2hrs) = 0.264 / 0.018 = 14.6 mmol/L Conclusion: Patient 1 is normal Patient 2 has normal fasting glucose level and high value after 2 hours (9.6 mmol/l), so this patient must be retested before diagnosis. Patient 3 is diabetic Discussion The glucose calibration graph showed a good linearity which means that Beers Lambert law is obeyed and the results are accurate. In glucose tolerance test (GTT) the patient is asked to eat normally in the three days leading up to the test and to be fasting for at least 12 hours. At the end of time the patient is asked to collect urine sample and blood sample is collected. After that, the patient drinks 75g of glucose in 300 ml of water within 5 minutes. After 2 hours, the patient is asked to collect anther urine sample and blood sample is collected. Normally when the patient is fasting, the glucose level should be < 5.5 mmol/L and there is no glucose in urine. After the patient is given the sugar, the glucose level in the blood will increase, but in the normal person the glucose concentration should go back to normal within 2 hours and no glucose can be detected in urine. What is happening in the normal person after given glucose is that insulin is produced in high concentration, the glucose is converted into glycogen and then the glycogen is stored in the liver. Finally, insulin concentration also decreases t o normal concentration. Whereas, in the diabetic patient the glucose level stays high because the insulin is insufficient, not produced or present but not functioning due to a defect in the ÃŽ ²-cells of pancreas. In normal condition, the filtered glucose is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. In Diabetes Mellitus the blood glucose is much above the renal threshold (11 mmol/L), reabsorption becomes saturated and it starts to appear in urine. The presence of glucose in urine is called glucosuria. Glucosuria results in osmatic diuresis that increase water excretion and raises the plasma osmolarity, which in turn stimulates the thirst centre. Osmatic diuresis and theist cause classical signs and symptoms of polyuria (large volume of urine) and polydipsia (excessive thirst). In patient-1, fasting blood glucose (4.3 mmol/L) is within the normal range and no glucose in urine. After 2 hours the blood glucose level is 5.8 mmol/L, which is below 7.8 mmol/L and no glucose in the urine. These mean that this patient is normal. In patient-2, fasting blood glucose is within the normal range and no glucose in urine. After 2 hours the blood glucose level is 8.3 mmol/L which is slightly high but it is within the normal range of impaired glucose tolerance (7.8- 11.1 mmol/l), whereas urine glucose is negative. This means that this patient must be retested before ending to diagnosis of impaired glucose or any other diagnosis. Many people with impaired glucose tolerance progress to develop diabetes, but this condition can be prevented with adoption of a diabetic-type diet and weight loss (if overweight). Whitby, G, et al, (1988). Patient-3 has high fasting blood glucose level (8.2 mmol/L), and in the urine the glucose is not detected. After 2 hours the glucose concentration did not reduce and it went higher up to 14.6 mmol/L. in addition to that, the urine dipstick showed very strong positive reaction (4+), which indicate that this patient is diabetic. In this patient the glucose concentration was high before the sugar was given. This means that there is a defect in insulin secretion which can not breakdown the glucose and bring to the normal level. The high blood glucose level was due to glycogenolysis, gluconeogesis or high glucose intake. Therefore, this patient may have type-1 Diabetes Mellitus. Questions: What facts should be taken in account when interpreting the results of glucose tolerance test? The facts are: Patient should eat normal diet within 3 days before doing the test. The diet should contain at least 250g of carbohydrate. Patient should be fast over night at least 10-12 hours and does not eat during the test. The 75g of glucose should be dissolved in 300 ml of water and then ask the patient to drink it within 5 minutes after collection of fasting blood sample. A pregnant woman should be given less than 75g of glucose as it may affect the baby. If the amount of glucose given is less than recommended, it will affect the result as the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) is standardized procedure. Patient should rest through the test; smoking is not permitted; drink of water is allowed. Blood sample should be collected in container that contains sodium fluoride to inhibit glycolysis. The patient must consult the health care provider if he/she is using medication that can interfere with the test result includes Thiazide diuretics (e.g. hydrochorothiazide), beta-blockers (e.g. prpanolol) oral contraceptive and some psychiatric drugs. There are interfering factors that affect OGTT. There are acute stresses for example, from surgery or infection, and vigorous exercise. Blood glucose rise with age and their renal threshold is increased. Time of sample collection is important (morning). The method we used employed glucose oxidase- name 2 other methods for glucose estimation and describe the principles used. Ortho-toluidine method (mono step): glucose reacts with ortho-toluidine in hot acidic medium to form a green coloured complex. The intensity of the final colour produced is directly proportional to concentration of glucose in the sample. UV-kinetic method: This method also measures the concentration of glucose. The reagent contains ATP, hexokinase, NADP and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) enzme in ethanol amine buffer (PH 7.5). Why HbA1c a better guide to long term diabetes control than glucose? The determination of plasma and urine glucose provides information about the metabolic status only at the moment. Long term control of glucose can be obtained with relative ease by measuring the amount of particular haemoglobin fraction in red blood cells. The glucose enters the red blood cells and binds the haemoglobin to a very small extent. Although some of the glucose diffuse from the haemoglobin due to formation of covalent bond, but some of the glucose will react with a particular amino acid in the haemoglobin protein. The haemoglobin/glucose complex has different chemical properties from the haemoglobin, thus it can be separated chromatographic or electrophoresis technique. The estimation of Glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) depends on the mean plasma glucose concentration and the life span of red blood cells (RBCs). The normal level of non-diabetic is < 6%. Also because it depends on the plasma glucose concentration, HbA1c in diabetic patient tend to be increased over the prev ious 1- months. The extent of elevation of HbA1c indicates the overall degree of blood glucose control; in poorly controlled diabetes it may rise as high as 25%. Whitby, (1998). So the higher percentage of HbA1c indicates more glucose bound to haemoglobin and hence poor control of diabetic. Subsequently this test is used to asses the quality of the long term control of blood glucose in diabetic patient. Also it examines the patient faithfulness with which he/she followed the health care instruction and the effectiveness of the medication prescribed for treatment.

What Drives Innovation In Apple?

What Drives Innovation In Apple? Apple generates ideas, manage innovation and then effectively diffuse the innovation. They generate ideas or search for opportunities by carrying out effective research and development, Apple has an innovation factory which carries out all experiments using the talented pool of people they have. It follows competition and tries to stay one step ahead of them. Effective linkages and networking is very important as valid information can be gained from them, so relations should be maintained with suppliers, dealers and other partners. Apple believes in learning and working in teams. Apples innovation is driven by external uncertainty and competition. Apple is also very effective in finding new market opportunities and reorganizing areas which were inefficient. It fills the gaps existing in the markets for example the gap of a product which was needed to fill the gap between a computer and a phone, so Apple came up with IPAD. Authority is delegated by Apple so that the innovative people can focus on their creative work rather than sorting out other problems. Apples credibility is very high, it is a trustworthy company and trust breeds innovation. Criticism is accepted willingly by the company as it helps out shaping good ideas into great ones. Optimum use of Apples resources the right time and place and proper project planning has enabled it to innovate. Effective marketing activities have been carried out to position the new idea or product in the minds of the customer. For E.g.: Think Different Campaign. Apple is way ahead in this field in comparison to the other competition it develops such a demand for its products even before its production, for instance their pre-booking of the new product IPAD even months before launch of the product, proves that they are pioneers in innovation and customers belief in them to create strong and innovative product. Strategic enablers for innovation Enablers of innovation capability in Apple are its Organizational Culture, People Management, Innovation Strategy and its Innovation Competencies. Apple develops an innovative culture right from the top of the management. Apples culture of innovative thinking also fosters the innovation process. Moreover leadership of Steve had been empowering to the company, he has inspired many new ideas and helped sharing the visions of the company. Apples functioning has been smooth and open, without any bureaucracy. Apple has been able to develop models of change and innovation through systems theory and used focused groups and experimentation. Apples motto Think Different promotes all working people in the organization to be innovative. Apple recognizes, protects and encourages all innovators in the organization. Innovators in the company are also rewarded either in monetary terms or recognition based. Apple has invested many resources in innovation because innovation requires much funding and lack of it can hinder creativity. Apple promotes diversity in their workforce as people from different background perceive things differently, so new interpretations and ideas can be created if diverse thinking is involved. Innovation is internalized in all people working for Apple as it is everyones role. Apple regularly evaluates all on going projects, as analyzing current activities is essential to ensure proper work is being done, double loop learning should be followed. The employees of Apple are skilled so they are able to handle the risk; it also tries to learn from their mistakes in the fast. Financial resources available to Apple also help in funding the innovation of the company. Best human resource is available to Apple which keeps them a step ahead of the rest, as there is no substitute for knowledge and talent, unless Apple innovates and tries to comes up with an alternative. Barriers to Innovation Apple faces a few hurdles which curtails their innovation capability. Apple always launches any new idea quite early and gives a date for the product launch in the future; it starts it marketing activity early. So Apple has to be efficient to make the deadline, this hinders any further innovative changes that could have been brought to the product as its focus shifts on to production. Moreover under delivery pressure products are made costly, rather than cost effective. Administrative pressure also increases as the products have to meet the launch date, so they stop thinking about things differently. Under this daily pressure to stick to time horizons and budgets, innovation leaves to be of prime importance until the goal is met. Apple sometimes tries to avoid risks, but low risk leads to low rewards, so Apple must take some calculated risks if it wants high rewards, Apple can do so. Apples culture and structure of the organization can sometimes constraint innovative thinking even if the technology is available, so culture needs to be shared by all and communication should be open. Public can sometimes doubt the effectiveness of some of the Apple products and expects a lot. This expectation can burden Apple a lot, so constant efforts have to be made to keep up the innovation. Apple sometimes tries to protect its reputed identity to increase their credibility and sustain itself, so it creates limits and gives responsibilities and lays down rules but innovation crosses the limits set by the organization. So instead of limiting its network, it should broaden it and manage all stakeholders effectively. Apple sometimes calculates the value of innovation in quantifiable terms like market share and profits and forgets things like reputation, leadership, talent, etc. These things neglected sparingly make the value of the firm so it should change the way it values innovat ion. Apple leads the customers rather than following them, this can hurt their company in the long run. So customers should be given utmost importance. Apple may have diverse workforce but overtime their thinking will start matching this may hurt the innovativeness of the company. Apple tries to make all its products look quite similar, this stops the creativity of the design innovation. Apple itself is its biggest enemy so it manages innovation effectively. Negativism and giving up can hurt Apples innovation capability. Complexity should also be avoided, managed or used effectively. Innovators come up with many ideas but which is the most appropriate one is hard to decide Apple has to keep that in mind. Microsoft were not going to work on the internet idea until now but they did this made our life so much easier. Apples market research is limited and this can hinder their organization as customer is the ruler and not Apple and importance should be given to their needs. Apple has also faced some barriers to Innovation when it has outsources some parts to other companies and they have come up short, or some suppliers did not provide in time. Apple relies on logic a lot but innovation is not derived by logic and some assumptions are also made which may be incorrect. Apples Designing Process Apples innovation strategy involves terrific new products and innovative business models. Genius ergonomics make Apple products effortless to use. Design is not just what it looks like and feels like. Design is how it works, said Steve Jobs. Apple has repeatedly demonstrated with its innovation management what a success user friendliness and design can generate. Some key elements of Apples design process are: Matching Top-down and Bottom-up Strategies Senior managers describe their dream products and outline what they want from any new application. In response, design teams select and present the best ideas from the paired design meetings to leadership, who might just decide that some of those ideas are, in fact, their longed-for new products. In this way, the dream products morph into deliverables. Top managers are also involved in the development process to ensure that there are no nasty mistakes down the line. Paired Design Meetings. Every week, design teams at Apple have two meetings: a right-brain creative meeting and a left-brain production one. At the creative meeting, people are to brainstorm, to forget about constraints, to think freely, and to go crazy. At the production meeting, the designers and engineers are required to nail everything down, to work out how this crazy idea might actually work. This process and organization continues throughout the development of any application. The balance shifts as the application progresses. Options are kept for creative thought even at a late stage. Developing Perfect Mockups Creating a full-size model of a design or a device requires a huge amount of work and takes an enormous amount of time, but it removes all ambiguity. That might add time up front, but it removes the need to correct mistakes later on. Apples 10 to 3 to 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³ approach Im as proud of what we dont do as I am of what we do, used to say Steve Jobs. Apples strategy for innovation demands that design ideas to be generated in multitudes. They are all run through a sort of artificial natural-selection mechanism that kills off the weak and only lets the strongest ideas rise to the top. Apple designers give themselves room to design without restriction and come up with 10 entirely different mockups of any new feature. Later they whittle that number to three, spend more months on those three and then finally end up with one strong decision. 4.5. Apples Venture Acquisition Strategy and Practices Apples venture investing and acquisition strategy is not very aggressive To stay ahead, Apple usually over-invests in its supply chain. The company is reported to pay a significant portion of the factory construction cost in exchange for exclusive rights to the output for a set period of time, and then for a discount once this period expires. Not only does this allow Apple to come out with new components long before rivals, but these components are very difficult to duplicate. The company makes fewer acquisitions than their competitors. When Apple does buy companies, its almost always tight lipped about how they will fit into its strategy and how easily their technologies can be integrated into existing company projects. Yet, some acquisitions stand out in terms of adding important features to existing product lines or opening doors into new markets. The company made its first acquisition in 1988 when it purchased Network Innovations. Apples $429 million acquisition of NeXT in 1997 helped the company move smoothly from PowerPC to Intel processors. This deal also brought Steve Jobs back to Apple. In 1998, Apple acquired the intellectual property and the development team from Macromedia to make Final Cut Pro one of the top video desktop editing programs on the market. In 2002, Apples acquired a German firm Emagic for $30 million. The Mac versions of its high end audio recording and production application Logic was further developed by Apple to produce Logic Studio. The PC version of Logic was buried. By acquiring FingerWorks, a developer of gesture recognition technology, in 2005 Apple added a significant patent and engineering value to its multi-touch technology package. PA Semi was another essential acquisition. Apple which is now referring to itself as a mobile device company wants as much of the value chain under their control as possible. Purchased in 2008 for US$278 the chipmaker startup was tasked with making system-on-chips for iPhones and iPods. Apples $275 million acquisition of mobile advertising firm Quattro Wireless in 2010 reflects the companys desire to strengthen its mobile technology portfolio. Quattro deal gives Apple an alternative to Googles entrenched dominance in mobile advertising. Quattro is a counterpart to AdMob, the mobile advertising firm that Google acquired in 2009 for US$750 million. With Quattro, Apple is able to deliver advertising to mobile devices while improving the measurement and execution of digital ad campaigns. Strategic Leadership of Steve Jobs Centralized , disciplinarian style of leadership Mechanistic approach to organization Core Strategy product based aimed at being creation of products to stay ahead of the market Core Focus Design Aspect of the product which included not only the aesthetic pleasing nature of the products but also simplification in its working Long Term View with focus on investments in the new products (Iphone, Itunes) which are not inside the core business of the company (Apple Computers) Mr. Jobs had exhibited roles of strategic leader such as : Talent Advocate When recruiting Mr Tim Cook in operational role , Sir Jonathan Ive as the the VP of the Industrial Design Strategist : Shifting of the focus and investing in products outside the core playfield of the company Iphone , Ipod .This long term approach of getting into the products which could be profitable in future had lead to development of Iphone which is the cash cow for Apple contributing to more than half of its revenue Captivator Mr Jobs had build passion commitment in his team to drive them to achieve new milestones in both product and service arena Strategic Canvas : Strategic canvas apple vs dell vs samsung : Strategic canvas apple vs samsung : Strategic canvas apple vs dell Value Elements Eliminate : Price Range: Apples products are premium and dont really come on a broad price range. Apple essentially serves a premium segment. Inventory Management: Apple is not able to en cash upon economies of scale as much as Dell and Samsung in their respective core industries which have specialization in Just in Time inventory management. Reduce: Supply chain innovation: Apple has not innovated much on the front of Supply chain management despite the fact that It sources its integrated chips from a set of suppliers. While Dell and Samsung (to an extent) have much robust supply chains to sustain their JIT system. Customization: Dell specializes in customization which is a big plus point. Apple doesnt provide as much variety for different customer segments at different price ranges as much as Dell and Samsung do. Raise: Features: Although Samsung also provides a rich set of features, but, Apple is even more highly loaded with innovative features. Apples interface and apps provide a completely different customer experience. Create: Product Innovation :Apple Products are at the frontier of product innovation . They have brought new paradigm to innovation by introducing multi-touch ,Firewire , Aero Theme Design Quality: Apple focus highly on design aspect where products created are high on aesthetic appeal .The components used are of highest quality and sometimes custom-made (Scratch Free Glass Screen of Iphone) Targeting High Profit Margins :Apple products follow strategy of more for more and have higher margins . For Eg : On high end macbook pro Apple captures margin as high as Rs20k ,while dell on similar laptop are able to capture on Rs 5k as profit margin from the user. Innovation-Radar : Innovation radar : apple vs dell : Innovation radar : apple vs samsung 4.10. Strategic Innovation Milestones by Apple Launch of Lisa Machintosh The Lisa followed by Macintosh:putting a dent on the universe Initially the whole PC market was captured by IBM.Though the first IBM PC was too expensive for the home market, but it proved a huge hit with business.That time IBM failed to realise the importance of the operating system and it purchased one from Microsoft. As a result other manufacturers were then able to copy the IBM hardware design and ship their Clones with copies of MSDOS purchased directly from Microsoft. As a result, even without IBMs approval or participation, their PC became an open standard with virtually unstoppable economies of scale. By 1990 IBM Compatible PCs captured an 80% market share, by 2000 97%.Following graph shows the market capture by incumbent. : personal computer market space Now, Apple innovated the market by following an entirely different business model for which it will remembered as the innovative company behind the first mass market GUI based computer. What -Who-Why Model applicable to Macintosh Lisa What: The first mass market GUI based computer which replaced the text based interfaces. Did not worked on product innovation , rather worked on bringing revolution The computers mouse could move diagonally, it had overlapping windows, dialogue boxes, and its operating system moved away from keyboard commands(not an existing idea then) Who : The Lisa computer was an expensive machine targeted at business and academia .Though Lisa proved to be a commercial failure but a year later Apple launched their successful Macintosh computer for consumers. How: Responsiveness Prediction of future of technology- After seeing Xerox-Alto, running on graphical interface Steve Jobs instantly started working on the technology with his engineers. Before Xerox could realize its true potential and launch its next Star 8010, Apple was already hard at work on their own GUI based computer Capturing competitors resources: Jobs hires 15 Xerox employees to work on the Lisa Project WHAT:GUI based computer replaced text based HOW: Responsiveness, Strategic leadership ,capturing competitor resources WHO: For Busness Academia Although Apple remained a niche player, it should be remembered that the IBM PC was a sort of meteor that hit the earth and wiped all life, Apple was essentially the single survivor of this dramatic evolutionary event. Apple Newton: The Apple Newton was an innovative and cutting-edge product , a handheld device with features like handwriting recognition, virtual keyboards, and an effective portable OS.The Newton was a breakthrough for the 90s and still at par or above some of the smartphones on the market today. Despite a glowing reception by consumers and Apple loyalists, the product failed and the idea of a tablet/PDA/phone was not resurrected by Apple until a few months ago with their announcement of the upcoming iPhone. Reasons it failed: Ahead of time : Market was not ready for this kind of product Not right timing: Apple was just not ready to integrate a non-computer product into their portfolio. Wrong positioning : Many saw the Newton as a competitor rather than a complement to the burgeoning laptop market. Basically, the product was too good. The Newton projects broad vision fell victim to project slippage, feature creep, and a growing fear that it would interfere with Macintosh sales. It was reinvented as a PDA which would be a complementary Macintosh peripheral instead of a stand-alone computer which might compete with the Macintosh. iTunes iTunes is a media player computer program used for playing, downloading, saving, and organizing digital music and video files on desktop or laptop personal computers. It can also manage contents on iPod, iPhone, iPod Touch and iPad devices. iTunes can connect to the iTunes Store to purchase and download music, music videos, television shows, iPod games, audiobooks, podcasts, movies and movie rentals , and ringtones. It is also used to download application software from the App Store for the iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch. iTunes has been criticized for not being able to transfer music from one portable device to another. iTunes was introduced by Apple Inc. on January 9, 2001. The Strategy behind iTunes Over the past decade, Apple Inc. has been extremely successful in formulating and implementing a coherent and focused strategic vision. Its success is evident not just in the companys bottom line results but also in its attractiveness to investors. Innovation has continued to keep Apple on the cutting edge of the consumer electronics market. One of Apples key innovative successes was the integration of its iTunes platform strategy with its overall vision of the company as a digital convergence company. Apple observed the flood of illegal music file sharing that began in the late 1990s. Music file sharing programs such as Napster, Kazaa, and LimeWire had created a network of Internet savvy music lovers freely, yet illegally, sharing music across the globe. By 2003 more than two billion illegal music files were being traded every month. While the recording industry fought to stop the cannibalization of physical CDs, illegal digital music downloading continued to grow. With the technology out there for anyone to digitally download music free instead of paying $19 for an average CD, the trend toward digital music was clear. This trend was underscored by the fast growing demand for MP3 players that played mobile digital music, such as Apples hit iPod. Apple capitalized on this decisive trend with a clear trajectory by launching the iTunes online music store in 2003. In agreement with five major music companies-BMG, EMI Group, Sony, Universal Music Group, and Warner Brothers Records-iTunes offered legal, easy-to-use, and flexible à   la carte song downloads. iTunes allowed buyers to freely browse two hundred thousand songs, listen to thirty-second samples, and download an individual song for 99 cents or an entire album for $9.99. By allowing people to buy individual songs and strategically pricing them far more reasonably, iTunes broke a key customer annoyance factor: the need to purchase an entire CD when they wanted only one or two songs on it. iTunes also leapt past free downloading services, providing sound quality as well as intuitive navigating, searching, and browsing functions. To illegally download music you must first search for the song, album, or artist. If you are looking for a complete album you must know the names of all the songs and their order. It is rare to find a complete album to download in one location. The sound quality is consistently poor because most people burn CDs at a low bit rate to save space. And most of the tracks available reflect the tastes of sixteen-year-olds, so although theoretically there are billions of tracks available, the scope is limited. In contrast, Apples search and browsing functions are considered the best in the business. Moreover, iTunes music editors include a number of added features usually found in the record shops, including iTunes essentials such as Best Hair Bands or Best Love Songs, staff favorites, celebrity play lists, and Billboard charts. And the iTunes sound quality is the highest because iTunes encodes songs in a format called AAC, which offers sound quality superior to MP3s, even those burned at a very high data rate. Customers have been flocking to iTunes, and recording companies and artists are also winning. Under iTunes they receive 65 percent of the purchase price of digitally downloaded songs, at last financially benefiting from the digital downloading craze. In addition, Apple further protected recording companies by devising copyright protection that would not inconvenience users-who had grown accustomed to the freedom of digital music in the post- Napster world-but would satisfy the music industry. The iTunes Music Store allows users to burn songs onto iPods and CDs up to seven times, enough to easily satisfy music lovers but far too few times to make professional piracy an issue. Today the iTunes Music Store offers more than 8 million songs. iTunes is the largest music retailer in the US with sales exceeding 5 billion songs. Apples iTunes has unlocked a blue ocean in digital music, with the added advantage of increasing the attractiveness of its highly successful iPod player and other Apple products like iPhone and iTab. By entering the market early and firmly entrenching its brand name, Apple was able to leverage a first movers advantage with its iTunes Music Store. By 2010, the iTunes store had grown into the worlds largest music store. Apple was able to further exploit this advantage by creating a proprietary technology for the iPod which protected songs downloaded from the iTunes store against piracy. An additional element of this Digital Rights Management System was that no competing MP3 player could play songs protected by it. Hence, Apple was able to gain an important advantage over existing competitors and potential new entrants into the MP3 arena. Apple also was able to take advantage of its economies of scale in controlling the pricing of digital music content made available through its iTunes store. Music labels were very concerned about the impact of this new a la carte pricing model on their CD sales, but there was little that they could do to stand in Apples way in light of its enormous market share of MP3 players. By 2010, Apple held more than 70% of the U.S. MP3 market. Apple has also utilized this controlled open platform strategy to develop content for its iPhone and iPad product lines. The App Store was introduced to the world as a part of iTunes which already was a hit amongst consumers. Apple once again gained first mover advantage in this smartphone arena by being the first smartphone app outlet that made it simple to distribute, access, and download content directly to its iPhone. In addition, third party developers flocked to have their content distributed via the App Store despite Apples strict control over content. Apple reserved the right to refuse content and received 30% of all sales made through its distribution channel. Apple continued to follow the model that made it successful with iTunes and the iPod, by using its market dominance to keep app prices low. Many of the apps distributed via the App Store were free or priced at a mere ninety-nine cents. Once again Apples competitors were left to play catch-up. In 2009, Apple pulled in n early $1 billion dollars in app sales alone. Apples true success lies in its ability to innovate and create new experiences for the customer based upon its ever burgeoning content base. Some would argue that Apple could gain an even greater competitive advantage in the marketplace by removing restrictions on developer access to its platform. The continuing restriction on compatibility with Adobe products is an obvious example. However, Apple has for at least a decade now been able to stave off the introduction of disruptive innovations by adhering to its strategy. As the market leader in consumer electronics, Apples future course may be rocky since competitors are vigorously working to create the magic bullet which will unseat iTunes dominance as the essential platform for distributing digital music, books, movies, TV shows, and other content. If Apple remains true to its platform strategy, this will be difficult for competitors to accomplish. iPad The iPad is a line of tablet computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc., primarily as a platform for audio-visual media including books, periodicals, movies, music, games, apps and web content. Its size and weight fall between those of contemporary smartphones and laptop computers. The iPad runs on iOS, the same operating system used on Apples iPod Touch and iPhone, and can run its own applications as well as iPhone applications. Without modification or a developer certificate, the iPad will only run programs approved by Apple and distributed via the Apple App Store (with the exception of programs that run inside the iPads web browser). Like iPhone and iPod Touch, the iPad is controlled by a multitouch display-a departure from most previous tablet computers, which generally used a pressure-triggered stylus-as well as a virtual onscreen keyboard in lieu of a physical keyboard. The iPad is sold with Wi-Fi and cellular models. The Wi-Fi connection is used to access local area networks and the Internet. Cellular models connect to mobile data networks with 3G or 4G in addition to Wi-Fi. The iPad was announced on January 27, 2010, by Steve Jobs at an Apple press conference at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco. Jobs later said that Apple began developing the iPad before the iPhone, but temporarily shelved the effort upon realizing that its ideas would work just as well in a mobile phone. The strategy behind iPad The iPad success strategy is the result of being able to pinpoint your companys competitive advantages in a given market and identify an effective strategy to tie these factors together. Apple did just that by building its Apple iPad around its competitive advantages, and as a result has seen tremendous success with tablet, maintaining its dominance in the technology devices market despite tremendous competitive pressures. Apple is a perfect example to demonstrate that knowing your companys identity and competitive advantages will provide great direction in terms of what marketing and product strategies will and wont work for a company. Ultimately, that will increase the likelihood of success with implementing new corporate strategies. A little over 6 months ago, Amazon took the tablet market by surprise and decided to enter into the space with its $199 Kindle Fire tablet offering. With that entrance many thought Apple would be forced to alter its iPad strategy because Amazon was offering a commodity-priced tablet that the lower-end of the tablet market might consider a sufficient substitute for the iPad, and that it also might challenge Apples dominance of tablet content consumption, as well. Rather than cave to pricing pressure from competitors like most companies facing similar situations would Apple did not budge. It knew its competitive advantages did not lend themselves to a price war. Instead, Apple stood strong and built a compelling strategy around its competitive advantages in the tablet space. Michael Porter Competitive Advantage Table : competitive scope versus competitive advantage Apples key competitive advantages in the tablet space are its: Premium brand image Market position Technology leadership and patents Product development Large number of ancillary service offerings Despite the entrance of price targeted competitors and the opening of a new set of more price-sensitive customers in the tablet space, Apple refined its iPad marketing strategy to address these changes in market dynamics, but made sure its competitive advantages in the market were at the heart of its iPad marketing strategy. The company has built its 3rd generation iPad marketing strategy and product strategy around the following eight factors, and has maintained a laser sharp focus to maintain its market position despite many competitor attempts to unseat Apple from market leadership in this product category. Dont compete on price, regardless of competitor offerings. Maintain the iPad as a premium brand. Utilize Apple exclusive services like FaceTime and iCloud to further differentiate the iPad from competitors. Exploit network effects like benefits to having more people on FaceTime. Make sure the hardware is profitable and the additional content revenue is just add-on revenue. Lead the race in research and development to ensure that the iPad Organ Donation: Ethical Arguments and the Law Organ Donation: Ethical Arguments and the Law According to Erich, (2004) â€Å"Organ donation† is defined as the taking away of tissue from one individuals body to let the transplantation of that tissue into another individuals body. Major organs for example; the lungs, liver and heart and kidneys can be contributed and donated, also parts of tissue for example the heart valves, corneas, tendons and skin can also be given. Organs and tissue can generally be removed from people who have recently died. In fact, since major organs for transplantation are taken out right after death and only a small number of people die in a way that allows them to donate organs. Nonetheless, kidneys and sections of the liver and pancreas can also be taken out for transplantation from living donors. In Australia, the donation of organs and tissue is a process that generally happens in a hospital operating unit. Erich, (2004) states that the transplantation of organs is now a highly recognized practice for those at risk of organ failure or suf fering from diseases which limits their life relentlessly. It is, however, the link between organ donation and transplantation that is significant for this discussion. The ‘major issue in the transplantation of solid organs is, according to Chapman (1992:48), the ‘availability of donors†¦ The number of organs available is not sufficient for any of the programs. Factors influencing the supply of donor organs thus provide the first indication of the nature of the social context in which organ transplantation is located. According to Erich, (2004) understanding this helps to explain the nature of individuals ethical responses to the process. We need to first acknowledge that the availability of donor organs is primarily influenced by a potential donor or donors family agreeing to donation at death. Moreover, a precondition of this agreement is the perceived desirability or at least the absence of its undesirability. This is another way of saying that the act of donating an organ must consciously be seen as ethically acceptable or not ethically acceptable. These factors, however, do not exist in a social vacuum but are mediated by a range of others that can be gleaned from the specialist literature on organ donation and transplantation. Such factors include the decline in road accidents which means less availability of donor organs, educated programs, bereavement programs for relatives of the donor, increased success rates for transplantation surgery, rising health care costs and government concern to promote transplantation units, awareness of, and pressure to introduce a policy of opting out of being a potential donor r ather than the current situation of opting out and so on. Currently in Australia, the level of organ donation is 9 organs per million people, half the rate of the USA and only a quarter of Spain, the leading proponent of organ donation. According to Lewins, (2001) Spain currently has the highest rate of organ donation in the world largely due to its commitment to improving organ donation rates throughout the countrys entire health care system. As a result, many other countries have drawn on aspects of Spains organ donation and transplantation sector in an attempt to lift their own rates selectively so in Australias case. Elements of the Spanish system that have been emulated by other countries include the national coordination of all aspects of the organ procurement and transplantation system, dedicated organ donation coordinators and transplant teams within hospitals, and presumed consent legislation. Lewins, (2001) states that transplant law in Spain operates under a presumed consent, or opt-out system. However, families must be approached and sign an authorization in order for the procedure to take place.   The uniform act provides for a more common form of recording a persons intention to make an organ donation: a donor card that may be carried in a wallet. States also allow this donor information to be imprinted on a drivers license. When a person applies for a drivers license, she or he has the option of including a desire to donate organs. Despite the simplicity of this option, it has not generated the quantity of donors that proponents of the procedure expected. Organ Donor Register of Australia Fellner, (2009) declares that in Australia, Organ donation is mainly revolved around The Organ Donor Register of Australia (ODRA), which is managed by Medicare Australia, and is Australias current major register of consent to organ donation and transplantation. It is a register of consent or approval for donated organs to be utilised for transplantation reasons only, and not for scientific reasons. The ODRA was created in 2001 as a national register of peoples want to donate. Subsequent to a review in 2003-04, the Australian Health Ministers Conference (AHMC) declared that the ODRA would be altered as of a record of intent to a record of consent. The declared intend of this change was to make sure that the acknowledged desires of the deceased, whether compliant or objecting, are valued and acknowledged (Fellner, 2009). Nevertheless, as shown above and discussed further later in this essay, to register consent is not to create a lawfully binding decree. Based on subjective evidence, t he National Clinical Taskforce has stated that, in some jurisdictions, donation can still happen if the next of kin has prearranged their permission, even with a registered objection by the deceased. (Wroe, 2004) Legal guidelines of organ donation are the sole responsibility of the Australian states and territories under the federal legal system. Each state and territory has different legislation to do with organ donation and transplantation, including commandments on consent for organ donation. With reference to McLean, (2003) not only is there not a Commonwealth legislation to do with organ donation, but there is as well no national organising body or agency with legislated authorities. As a consequence, legislation and directives of Australias organ donation and transplantation division, which covers a wide range of actions and procedures, vary across the country. While there is not any Commonwealth legislation concerning organ donation, there are a few general guidelines and protocols that are appropriate to every state. State and territory legislative frameworks in relation to transplantation are majorly based on the concept of informed consent. In the occasion of their death, people can decide to have consent for their organs to be taken. Where individuals provide their approval for their organs to be used and employed for transplantation use, this consent is then documented and recorded. This consent is now a type of legal accord that their organs can be used, if required, for transplantation. Though Kirsty, (2002) states that again registration of consent is not a lawfully binding decree. Under different state and territory laws, consent can be shown in a variety of different ways. For example, in New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland (QLD), donation may only continue where the deceased has beforehand given written consent. In Victoria, approval and consent can be given in writing or verbally at some point in the last stages of infirmity of the deceased. In addition, whenever there is no legal co nsent registered, the next of kin or close relatives and family are able to provide consent or approval for organs of the departed to be donated. When the deceased individuals family members cannot get in touched with, the states and territories vary with regard to the problem of whether or not they permit donation to continue. In NSW, Western Australia (WA) and Tasmania (TAS), when no consent was listed by the deceased and a next of kin cannot be made contact, donation cannot continue. In Victoria (VIC), South Australia (SA), Northern Territory (NT) and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), where efforts have been made to contact the relative or family and there are no grounds to believe that both the family and the deceased would disagree to the deceaseds organs getting donated, and then donation can legally carry on (Kirsty, 2002). Although, whether or not an individual has shown their consent for donation, family members are consulted at all times (Kirsty, 2002). Donation cann ot happen when family members firmly disagree to such a process, even when the deceased individuals consent has been registered. It is therefore, clear that one can only consent to donate a part of ones body if it causes no appreciable harm or at least, if the harm caused is greatly outweighed by the resultant benefits. Another legal aspect in relation to organ donation is the selling of organs, which is illegal under the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act that was drafted in 1968. Though, a very good case has been made out for the organ being the property of the donor insofar as it is within his or her to dispose of it as desired, subject only to the common law. But, McLean, (2003) states that if the organ is something that can be gifted, why is it not something that can be sold and it is at this point in the argument that Parliament has felt itself bound to call upon stature law which has done by way of the Human Organ transplant Act 1989. The 1989 Act has two main functions. The first is to criminalise all aspects of financial trading in human organs and this includes being and selling organs from the dead as well as the living, the second is to regularise and control non commercial organ replacement therapy using living donors. As to the first, it is an offence for any person to make or receive payment for taking any active part in the transplantation programme. Those in favour of the ban would say that commercial donors are exposing themselves to unacceptable risk but, live organ donation is legally, morally and technically acceptable when it is conducted on a non commercial basis. Secondly, the ethicist will say that free, unfettered consent is impossible when it is associated with financial pressure, but the financial pressure exerted commercialism is no greater than the emotional pressure involved in free donation within the family. Thirdly, the process can be seen as exploitation of the poor by the rich, but momentary reward for any unpleasant form of employment is a form of exploitation. Lastly many people would say that the commoditisation of the human body is intrinsically immoral. Subsequent to the modifications made to the ODRA in 2004, the Australian Health Ministers Advisory Committee (AHMAC) has charged the National Health and Medical Research Committee (NHMRC) with taking on an evaluation of its procedure, Commendation for the Donation of Organs and Tissues from cadavers for Transplantation (1997). This evaluation also reflects on background documents from the Australian Health Ethics Committee and performed sessions and conferences with the appropriate groups and stakeholders. The new NHMRC plans, Organ and Tissue Donation following Death, For Transplantation, offer a guide to ethical standards in relation to organ donation. The guidelines are founded on the beliefs that; Firstly, the donation of bodily organs and tissues is a just act of unselfishness and human cohesion, Secondly organs and tissues for transplantation should be acquired in ways that: Show respect for all aspects of human dignity Respect and acknowledge the wishes, where known, of the deceased Give priority to the desires of the potential donor and kin over the benefits of organ procurement Protect all recipients from harm and Recognise the desires of all those directly involved, which take account of the donor, recipient, kin, guardians, friends and health experts. (List adapted from Erich, 2004) Thirdly, organ and tissues must be allocated according to just and transparent procedures and lastly, the decision not to donate must be respected and the family shown acknowledgment for the choice. The guidelines, in addition gives advice as to how authorisation of donation ought to be resolute to where there is no next of kin on hand, as well as offering ways to make sure that family members make an knowledgeable decision in regards to the donation of the deceaseds organs. But in ethical terms, whos to choose who gets to receive an organ and live? To decide that some people are less socially desirable than others and to allocate life saving resources on the basis of â€Å"social worth† has justifiably been in disrepute. According to Thomas, (2006) not only so such judgements disrespect all notions of primary worth, but they also easily open the door so arbitrary value judgements in which national origin, race religion and social class become determining factors. In Kantian terms, all persons by virtue of being persons deserve absolute respect. If we allow social worth criteria to protrude into our medical judgements when it comes to the allocation of scarce resources, we are indeed violating the respect for sentimental beings that forms one of the cornerstones of contemporary ethics. According to Thomas (2006), there are three types of donation in relation to organs by living individuals to their recipients. They are, directed donation to a family member or friends; non directed donation, in which the donor grants an organ to the wide-ranging selection to be transplanted into the recipient at the peak of the waiting list, and direct donation to a stranger, where donors decide to give to a particular individual with whom they have no preceding emotional relationship with. However, each form of donation presents its own individual ethical concerns and issues. With directed donation to family or friends, uncertainties occur about the extreme pressure that can be put on individuals to donate, and those who are unwilling to do so to feel forced. According to Wroe, (2004), transplantation programs are usually prepared to identify a reasonable medical excuse, so that the individual can bow out gracefully. Equally significant, however, are situations in which people fee l obliged to donate in spite of the penalties to themselves. In cases like these, merely getting a hold of the informed consent of the relative is not enough; physicians are obliged to stop people from making possible life threatening decisions unless the likelihood of success is large. Non directed donation creates different ethical concerns. The essential unselfishness that encourages an individual to make a possible life threatening sacrifice for an unfamiliar person calls for careful inspection. With reference to Truog, (2005) a recent case involved a male who appeared mentally obsessed with donating all that he has, from his wealth to his bodily organs, saying that doing so was a great deal as the obligation as eat, drink, and breathe.After giving one kidney to a stranger, he speculated on how he could donate all of his other organs which would result in death. Other mentally suspicious motivations must be taken into consideration also, to prevent unnecessary deaths. Hence, after this dilemma society questions if the individual is trying to pay off for depression or low self esteem, in search of media attention, or harboring hopes of becoming occupied in the life of the recipient. Transplantation experts have the responsibility to evaluate possible donors in all these dimensions and forbid donations that provoke catas trophic concerns. (Truog, 2005) Directed donation to a stranger creates analogous ethical questions with a few extra notions. This kind of donation generally takes place when a patient advertises for an organ openly in public, on television or newspapers or online. According to Truog, (2005) such advertising is not against the law, but it has been solidly discouraged by the transplantation experts. Two major objections are that the practice is unjust and that it intimidates the outlook that the bodily organs are in fact a gift of life, and not a product to be bought and sold. On the other hand, the thought of transplanting the organs or the newly dead into the living makes some people uncomfortable. Transplanting organs from the living donor into the needy recipient often meets with other objections. With reference to Erich, (2004) three philosophical objections have been raised; Firstly, Capriciously removing a part of an organ not only is irrational but is â€Å"mutilation† and unacceptable. Persons are their bodys stewards and compelled not to treat their bodies in injurious ways. Secondly, Persons, since they are merely stewards of their body, are justified in removing a part of their body only by so doing they preserve the integrity of the whole. If however, a part is removed so as to the preserve the integrity as a whole, then, in the context of a stewardship, such â€Å"self mutilation† is not only permissible but, perhaps, since it promotes wholeness, mandatory. Thirdly, mutilation of the body by removing a part is impermissible for any reason, even that of helping ones neighbor, other than to preserve the integrity of the whole body of which it is a part. And lastly, the idea of totality to be preserved intact when a man dies persists. Deontological ethics Deontological ethics is too inflexible in its importance on duties, utilitarian ethics too keen to overrule fundamental human rights. Deontology and utilitarianism are both types of ethics referring to how one responds in a certain situation. Deontology is based on following a set of duties and sticking to these duties no matter what the consequences, whereas utilitarianism is based on choosing the best outcome over a short term and long term even if it means depriving people of basic human rights. According to a deontologist, ones actions must be determined by a set of duties regardless of whether the long term consequences are good or bad. According to Micah, (2005) a deontologist believes in human morals and that every human has certain rights which should not be betrayed no matter what the cost. For example, taking organs from an individual without their consent, even to save one hundred lives would be unacceptable to the deontologist even though the fact the consequences would be better on the whole. The biggest problem with deontology knows which set of duties to pursue; there could be a huge variation in systems between people from different backgrounds, different social classes, different religions and people from different cultures. Micah, (2005) questions as to how do we tell which obligation is the most important and which is the least? If the consequences of each are to be considered then this would make it a consequentialist view and not a deontological one. Single duty conflicts cause just as many problems such as two individuals imminently need a heart transplant but only one organ is available, a deontolo gist has a duty to save lives but on this occasion only one out of the two can be saved. For example, a case that was discussed at a recent public forum hosted by Harvard Medical Schools Division of Medical Ethics: a Jewish man in New York learned of a Jewish child in Los Angeles who needed a kidney transplant. The man wanted to help someone of his own race and resolute that he was willing to donate a kidney to aid this child. Regardless of his discriminatory preference, one may analyse the donation as acceptable, since at least several patients would benefit for example, the child would be given a kidney, and those under her on the waiting list would move up one) and no one would be harmed (those above the girl on the waiting list would not get the kidney under any conditions, for the reason that the man would not give it to them). Whether directed donation to strangers violates values of equality is thus controversial. But if it is acceptable, it will be very hard to disallow discriminatory preferences, since donors can just specify that the organ must go to a particul ar individual, without saying why. According to Mill, (2004), Utilitarianism is a theory that promotes the best welfare and the greatest good for the greatest number. To attain this objective, societys resources are shared so that the maximum number of individuals benefit. In the context of organ transplantation, patients desires are compared so that the greatest results can be obtained and the greatest use of a scarce resource can be made. Our use of organs from patients who initially are judged to be medically unsuitable as donors supports the utilitarian approach of expanding the pool of potential donor organs and providing benefits to a greater number of patients. The ending result, however beneficial, does not justify the use of unethical means. Medical utilitarianism is therefore subjected to principles that reflect deontological theory. For example the â€Å"Karlovian† transplant case is an example of the anti-utilitarian theory. In this made-up case, a doctor has to m ake a decision whether to take the life one of his patients in order to save four other patients by using the victims transplanted organs. In conclusion, we have questions whether or not it is reasonable to continue to assert that there, or should be no property rights in the human body, or at least in its parts. Modern medical reality might provoke a re-evaluation of this mantra. At the same time, we have emphasised the complexity of the very concept of property itself, arguably requiring the law to take a more sophisticated approach to individual rights in respect of control, ownership and disposal. Not only would this present an accurate foundation for Australias organ donation and transplantation scheme, but it would also permit for the widest variety of motivations for organ donation while not negotiating peoples capacity to create ethical choices in donation. At the same point, preparation Australias organ donation and transplantation scheme on the idea of a rational, autonomous decision-maker could allow a number of changes to this scheme, the final result of which may be an increased amount of organs obtainable for transplantation and additional Australian and New Zealand lives saved. â€Æ' References Erich, H. (2004) Textbook of Healthcare Ethics. New York and London: Plenum Press. Fellner, C. (2009) Organ Donor Register. Retrieved 4th October 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.healthinsite.gov.au/topics/Organ_Donation Kirsty, A. (2002) Organ donation laws. Retrieved 5th October 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/stories/s103007.htm Lewins, F. (2001) Bioethics of Health Professionals: an introductions and critical appraoch. Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia. McLean, S. (2003) Legal and Ethical Aspects of Healthcare. San Francisco: Cromwell Press. Micah, H. (2005) The American Journal of Bioethics. Retrieved 2nd October 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/american_journal_of_bioethics/v003/3.1hester.html Mill, J (2004) Practical Reasoning In Bioethics. Retrieved 29th September 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://facweb.bcc.ctc.edu/wpayne/utilitarianism.htm Thomas, C.(2006) Ethics Around Organ Donation. Retrieved 4th October 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.chf.org.au/Docs/Downloads/HV_Issue1_April08_Thomas.pdf Truog, R. (2005) The Ethics of Organ Donation by Living Donors. Retrieved 5th October 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/5/444 Wroe, D (2004) Law change to make organ donations easier. Retrieved 5th October 2009 from the World Wide Web: http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/04/23/1082616327960.html?from=storyrhs